A focus on multi-actor involvement
A defining factor in Dutch development cooperation has been the focus on farmer organizations, civil society and non-governmental organizations and knowledge institutions. Through the ‘Golden Triangle Approach’, the Dutch ministry responsible for agriculture emphasized the synergies and linkages between government, the private sector and research and knowledge institutions to promote agricultural development. This approach led to the ‘Dutch Diamond approach’, which included civil society organisations, that was adopted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs at a later stage. These approaches are largely based on how the Dutch agricultural sector evolved to become a cornerstone of the national economy. They were also foundational for the Food Systems approach developed by the Wageningen University and Research centre (WUR).
Public private partnerships also emerged as a means to co-fund development related initiatives. Government funding was primarily used to leverage private sector investment in agriculture and to ensure that development goals focusing on inclusive development, environmental sustainability and food security were pursued.
A separate timeline will be developed to highlight the specific role of famers’ organizations and cooperatives in the Dutch approach, farmers’ organizations having been influential in creating an institutional environment that contributed towards the success of Dutch agriculture and in defining the contours of Dutch development cooperation efforts in support of agricultural development and food security in developing countries and on the world stage.
Inclusion and empowerment of marginalised groups, including women
The focus on women in agriculture became a leading theme in the 1980's. This was in recognition of the roles women play in agricultural production, processing, marketing and ‘feeding the family’. For a further discussion see the NICC timeline on gender and agriculture[1].
Attention was also frequently directed towards marginalised ethnic groups whose access to knowledge and resources was limited or whose livelihoods were threatened by ‘modernisation’, and decreased access to resources to sustain their livelihoods. More recently, there is a strong focus on youth, whose opportunities to access resources (land, finance, knowledge) and generate incomes from agriculture are threatened. The focus on youth is primarily on creating gainful employment opportunities in the agricultural sector.
Agricultural research, extension and education/training
In many partner countries, Dutch development cooperation efforts focused on one or more of these issues. However, creating linkages, in line with the OVO approach (a research, extension and education approach successfully promoted in the Netherlands by the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Fisheries), has often been less successful in developing countries due to a lack of collaboration between institutions involved in research, extension and education in partner countries.
Research stations were initially established in Dutch colonies in the colonial and post-colonial period to support plantations mainly involved in cash crop production. Many projects, also those focusing on food crops, were developed on the basis of research activities conducted by the Wageningen University and the Larenstein agricultural college (in Deventer). In Mali, for example, two research projects requested by the government of Mali after independence to assess the options to further develop irrigation in the delta of the Niger river, led to a long term commitment on the part of the Netherlands focusing on water management, irrigation infrastructure and crop, mainly rice, production[2].
Whereas the World Bank was actively supporting the Training and Visit (T&V) extension system, Dutch experts at the FAO lobbied for and supported the introduction of farmer field schools (FFS) – a peer to peer exchange of knowledge and skills - supported by extension services that has proven successful and was implemented in many countries in Asia and Africa. Initially focused on Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in the wake of Green Revolution technology packages, FFS's gradually adopted other thematic issues related to innovations and technologies to improve agricultural productivity.
The now defunct T&V system promoted by the World Bank as well as most national government-led top down extension systems, have been replaced by privatized decentralized extension systems. Farmer field schools are still active in many countries often linked to farmer organizations[3].
In the 2017 IOB evaluation of the Dutch Food Security policy for the period 2012-2016, the researchers noted that ‘the evidence for the positive effects of agricultural research and intensive small-scale farmer extension is particularly convincing and agricultural research support by the Netherlands is likely to pay off substantially. A good link between research and extension is crucial, however, and part of the success claimed by research should also be credited to farmer extension and the input value chains needed for distributing new innovations’.[4]
Dutch contributions also supported the work of international agricultural research institutions who were members of the Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)’. Many Dutch academics were involved as researchers in these institutions. Following the reform in 2001 of the CGIAR, this culminated in a Netherlands-CG partnership in 2015[5] . Further reforms to establish a single research entity – One CGIAR – are now underway.
Trade and investment
Trade and investment have been cornerstones of Dutch interventions in developing countries since the colonial period, initially focused on catering to Dutch and international demand for agricultural products such as spices, palm oil, and rubber. In fact the spice trade was one of the main contributors towards the 17th century Golden Age in the Netherlands. Recently there have been significant efforts to actively engage the Dutch private sector in development initiatives that will benefit local development as well as Dutch business interests.
Aid for Trade initiatives have been launched in both East and West Africa, primarily to promote regional trade in these sub-regions. The Netherlands also provides support to the World Trade Organization aiming at creating a level playing field for international trade. Support for agricultural trade includes both services and products. Programs such as IDH (Initiative for Sustainable Trade) are leaders in promoting sustainable trade in specific agricultural sub-sectors.
Efforts to merge development cooperation and trade from 2013 onwards led to a distinction between countries (low income) with a focus on aid, countries in a transitional phase and countries in which trade relations dominate. The assumption is that targeted development actions will lead to inclusive economic development that will allow countries to benefit from trade relations to the extent that they can manage and fund their own development. Solid trade relations with developing countries and emerging economies are also assumed to benefit Dutch (agribusiness) private sector investors as well as contributing to local economic development in lower income countries. Improved policy coherence is needed to achieve both of these goals.
To promote trade and investment, trade missions are organized involving Dutch and local agri-businesses seeking to expand their markets. Throughout the past decennia there seems to be a shift from export of agricultural products to export of knowledge, skills, service delivery mechanisms (including logistics and finance) and infrastructure as well as some specific subsectors such as seed marketing and production. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs also focuses on creating an enabling environment for trade and investment with due attention to responsible business practices.[6]
Special attention for spatial and environmental aspects
In the mid-1980s concerns with environmental problems in developing countries intensified, partly because they were considered as threats to the potential for development, especially for the poor. In 1984-1985 an environmental policy for development cooperation was drafted. This concept was introduced globally in 1987 via the Brundtland Report[7]. The Dutch development cooperation policy document ‘A world of difference’ (1990)[8] strengthened concern with the environment, placed environmental issues in a broader perspective and adopted the concept of ‘sustainable development’ as basic principle of international cooperation policy.
Spatial and environmental issues became important elements of Dutch development cooperation efforts, often linked to promoting sustainable economic development and increasing labour and land agricultural productivity. Dutch institutions such as the land registry (‘Kadaster’) , the Rural Areas Service (DLG, dealing with rural land use planning) and the Commission for Environmental Assessments are actively involved in development cooperation efforts. By the early ‘90s assessments of environmental impact were mandatory for all projects and programs. Research and extension efforts were launched to promote agroforestry and other measures to improve soil fertility and increase productivity in agriculture.
More recently, environmental concerns were integrated into landscape and territorial development programs. In the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), launched in 2000, and the SDGs, launched in 2016, environmental protection featured prominently.
Water management for agriculture
Water management is a core competence of the Dutch. In Dutch supported water programs for agriculture, irrigation and drainage systems were established or improved, often with a special focus on access to land and water for poor households. Examples of long term assistance are the Office du Niger program in Mali and Dutch water sector support in Egypt[9]. In Tanzania the Dutch volunteer service SNV implemented small scale irrigation projects in the 1980’s and ‘90’s with funding from the Dutch government, e.g. the Traditional Irrigation Program (TIP). Rope pump based small scale irrigation efforts to improve backyard horticulture with mainly female producers were also supported by the Netherlands in Nicaragua and Ethiopia and later in other countries. However, farmer-led irrigation efforts have been largely neglected in large scale agricultural development programs1. Irrigation was an important aspect of Green Revolution efforts in Asia in the ’70s and ‘80s but has been limited in sector wide agricultural transformation efforts in many African countries[10].
Agricultural counsellors/attachés
The Dutch ministry LNV, responsible for Agriculture, Nature and Fisheries, assigns agricultural counsellors/attachés at embassies where the bilateral relationship and cooperation in agriculture is considered important. The aim is to work together on the design and implementation of agricultural development policies and specific projects with involvement of Dutch companies and institutions. They work closely with the Dutch agricultural sector, both private enterprises and public institutions as well as with the national agricultural sector to provide (mutual) access to markets or solve phytosanitary and other problems. They also advise Dutch embassies on food security and food safety policies and programs as well as national governments and inter-/supranational organizations on agriculture related matters. The agricultural attachés facilitated many agricultural trade missions to and from various countries. They also connect private businesses with Dutch subsidy instruments through the Netherlands Enterprise Agency (RVO), top sectors or other initiatives. Although the focus is still primarily on higher income countries the attaché network has expanded to include emerging economies and some low-income developing countries (LDC’s). Agricultural attachés are increasingly involved in initiatives to promote local development for agricultural development and food security. The merger of aid and trade has further stimulated synergy between development cooperation and Dutch agricultural trade and investment[11].
[1] https://www.canonvannederland.nl/nl/page/197432/gender-agriculture-timeline
[2] See the case study Office du Niger (annex)
[3] See https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S157352141930137X?ref=cra_js_challenge&fr=RR-1
[4] IOB, Food for Thought: Review of Dutch Food Security Policy (2012-2016) October 2017.
[5] The Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) consists of 15 theme and commodity oriented research institutions. More information is provided in the relevant time periods. The Netherlands was a founding member and has built up strong relations with the ÇG institutions since the beginning.
[6] Review of policy and practice Aid and Trade (KIT):https://www.kit.nl/publication/aid-trade-in-dutch-development-cooperation/
[7] https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf
[8] By Minster Jan Pronk, NICC collection nr. A08978
[9] See the NICC water timelines.
[10] In many African countries maintaining and improving soil fertility through ISFM (Integrated Soil Fertility Management) is more important to increase productivity than dealing with water shortages.
[11] See: Diplomatie op Klompen (100 jaar Landbouwattachés) E. Denig, J. Landstra, R. Schaap, F. Thissen, 2019